Iran has had a turbulent history in just its recent past. One factor still smothered the emergence of religious politics on the international scene: communism (or Marxism). Read “Surveillance State: NSA Spying and more” to learn more. Read “North Korea and Nuclear Weapons” to learn more. It was with disbelief and shock that people around the world saw footage of the terrorist attacks in the US on on September 11, 2001 when the planes-turned-missiles slammed into the World Trade Center towers and damaged the Pentagon. This section looks into these and related issues. States are understood to be the only (or main, in the case of neorealism) actor in international politics. The UN has described both sides as committing war crimes. Beginning in October 2015, as part of the US FONOP program, the US Navy ships have patrolled near the artificial islands China has created in the disputed Spratly archipelago to underscore the US position that the artificial islands constructed by China are located in international waters. According to most mainstream media outlets, the kidnapping of an Israeli soldier by Hezbollah in mid 2006 sparked off the crisis in Lebanon. Huntington's is by far the most geopolitical of all studies about the politics of religion appearing after 1990 because it extends the familiar idea of strategic blocs (like those of the Cold War) to the world of civilizations, essentially conceived as religions. Why have some nations, such as the United States, feared a loss of sovereignty even when that would not happen, and thus sought to undermine the ICC? There's not a politician out there who doesn't speak subjective desire. As a historically contingent concept of geopolitical thought and practice, it requires further critical development and elaboration. Since the bombing campaign ended and Saddam Hussein was overthrown, the expected quick democracy, peace, and gratitude to the US quickly became a nightmare and disaster as major religious and ethnic factions started fighting each other and the US/UK occupation forces. For realism, ordered international space represents a peaceful system, whereas anarchy signifies global political space which has yet to be domesticated by a sovereign state. Maps are also provided. By privileging one side, a hierarchy is formed which naturalizes the unequal relationship between self and some defined other. Proposals are growing stronger for an arms trade treaty. Critical geopolitical analysis has shown how the presence of external threats has been used within geopolitical discourse to disciplining domestic dissent. Marxism was a tempting ideology in former colonies because it was seen as the logical ‘Third World’ answer to ‘First World’ exploitation. This treaty came into force in 1999. However, as the case of the Sino–Indian border war shows, international and geopolitical factors can both induce boundary and territorial disputes and suddenly put them to a dormant status. Unsurprisingly, there has been a lot of furor. Furthermore, some key countries continue to use landmines, or support the need for them, despite the problems they often cause for civilians long after conflicts have ended. Concerns about a crackdown on civil rights in the wake of the so-called war on terror have been expressed for a long time, and these revelations seem to be confirming some of those fears. Some of these nations have claimed parts of the region to be their territory. (It also won the ICBL the 1997 Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts.) Therefore, jobs are created, but not at home. These leaks revealed a massive surveillance program that included interception of email and other Internet communications and phone call tapping. In 2003, the US and UK invaded Iraq under false pretenses (that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction ready for deployment within minutes and posed a great threat to the world, etc. The 3 week offensive claimed some 1,300 Palestinian lives, 400 of which were children. Thousands have become refugees in Lebanon and Israel, as innocent civilians attempt to flee bombardment. It is argued that strengthening military relationships can strengthen relationships between nations and military aid may be a way to achieve that. Geopolitical view: Geopolitics is one of the fields of study with high prominence that has several definitions, but it’s easy to define it in that way. Military aid may even be given to opposition groups to fight nations, which was commonplace during the Cold War where even dictatorships were tolerated or supported in order to achieve geopolitical aims. Read “Oslo Dead? The aid may be in the form of training, or even giving credits for foreign militaries to purchase weapons and equipment from the donor country. Attempts at brokering ceasefires have predictably failed. Geopolitics, analysis of the geographic influences on power relationships in international relations. Oil tankers en route to Asia must pass through the narrow Strait of Malacca near Singapore. The attractiveness of communism in some newly independent states has also been explained from its neat fit to the socioreligious order of society (like Brahmanism in India). This imaginative geography was made manifest over space as it was built into colonial policy, into the institutions of governance, and, more recently, into practices of aid and development. Leaving Iraq aside as a special case, there is some question whether these sanctions are working effectively if they are not multilateral and accepted by other countries. That role is strengthened but has also become more complicated following the U.S. invasion and occupation of Iraq in 2003. Innocent passage is defined by the UNCLOS as passing through waters in an expeditious and continuous manner, which is not ‘prejudicial to the peace, good order or the security’ of the coastal state concerned. However, the new republics around the Caspian Sea are not democracies and could become unstable during future transfers of power or revolutions or ethnic strife. These civilizations are portrayed as antagonistic. This was the power of … The 1993 Oslo Accord, whereby Israel recognized the PLO and gave them limited autonomy in return for peace and an end to Palestinian claims on Israeli territory, has been largely criticized as a one-sided accord, that benefits only Israel, not the Palestinian people. However, critics point out that the program is very expensive (largely paid for by the public), that the technologies are risky, that the threat rationale isn't very strong and that this will affect international relations, and could lead to an arms race. Read “Palestine and Israel Introduction” to learn more. However, as the case of the Sino–Indian border war will show, international and geopolitical factors can both induce boundary and territorial disputes and suddenly put them to a dormant status. However, for various political and profit reasons, some nations seem unwilling to agree to a code of conduct. Historical geographers have been particularly focused on assessing the theoretical contributions to war of some key geopolitical thinkers of the late nineteenth and first half of the twentieth centuries. However, to learn this situation in a best way, we should also consider and look deeper into many regional issues that sometimes we ignore when we look at competition between the great powers at the global level. The end of the Cold War and the disintegration of the Soviet Union removed the Soviet threat to the region. But it seems some aid goes to oppressive regimes which may help with geopolitical aims but may not necessarily help people of the recipient nation. Since the (Western) state became strongly defined by secular aims and values in the nineteenth century, religion was not geopolitics' foremost preoccupation. A brief look at our human history simply reveals that geopolitics has been the driving force in world politics and international relations, especially during the past century or even earlier (Literature in this regard would include, among others, Agnew (2003), Cohen (2003, 2008), Cohen-Tanugi and Holoch (2009), Mostrous (2010) and Overholt (2007)). 45 articles on “Geopolitics” and 10 related issues: Arms Trade—a major cause of suffering Last updated Sunday, June 30, 2013. TYPES OF BOUNDARIES –GEOMETRIC ... Concept of politics and geopolitics has really changed in last 50 years –Was an “us” vs. “them” environment during Cold War –Today, if anything is “them”, its not the Soviet Union---it’s the concept of terrorism. Read “Palestine and Israel” to learn more. People are driven out and murdered to serve geopolitics. Its use has mainly been restricted to a handful of writers from the Anglo-American critical geopolitics perspective. Democracy is a valued principle, so much so that some people have sacrificed their lives to fight for it. This phenomenon is neither harmless nor innocent. Are there merits to each approach? Geopolitics, Social Darwinism, State Survival, and “Lebensraum” These histories serve as a simplified starting point for understanding geopolitics, and the types of influences that are embedded in the concept. For example, the intensifying ‘tit-for-tat’ territorial competition between China and India (during the 1960s) and between China and Japan (in the East China Sea since the early 2010s) could become just such situation. Critical geopolitical analysis of security discourse demonstrates that it is difference that threatens the states so that the essential moment of geopolitics is the division of space into ‘our’ place and ‘their’ place; its political function being to incorporate and regulate ‘us’ or ‘the same’ by distinguishing ‘us’ from ‘them’, ‘the same’ from ‘the other’. In modern conflicts over 80 percent of all casualties have been civilian. How did this crisis come about and what were some of the issues raised? These mixed messages make the future for Libya uncertain. The recent US Freedom of Navigation Operations (FONOP) program at the South China Sea is another case of concern (Box 11.2). Read “Militarization and Weaponization of Outer Space” to learn more. The US ended its support for Iran and instead supported Iraq in a brutal war through the 1980s against Iran where over 1 million people died. Five countries—Canada, Denmark (via Greenland), Norway, Russia, and the United States—share a border with the frozen Arctic Ocean. Whereas the adjectival notation of anti-geopolitical can be useful – for example in the notion of the anti-geopolitical eye – the noun anti-geopolitics is ambiguous and can be misleading. Although the coining of the term geopolitics is associated with the Swedish political scientist, Rudolf Kjellén (1864–1922), the founding father of geopolitical thinking is considered to be the German, Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904). With state sovereignty came the dominant understanding that a … The Israeli-Palestinian conflict, or Arab-Israeli conflict, or whatever name it goes by, is perhaps one of the more sensitive issues that is discussed. These studies have been paralleled by a revived interest in statecraft in general and this body of work has been presented as critical geopolitics. Internally, movements towards moderate policies and democratic values are gaining traction, but not with hardliners in power trying to hold on. An increased militarism risks resulting in an arms race as regions and neighbors strive to keep up or out do others. More recently, Iran was described as being part of an “axis of evil” by US President George Bush, as part of his “war on terror.”. Some believe in strong prohibition enforcement. This ultimately resulted in the US declaring and waging a war on terror. Often when Islam is mentioned negative impressions of fundamentalists, intolerance and terrorism is conjured up; Islamist movements and organizations are automatically linked with terrorism and is blamed for the lack of progress in the Middle East peace process. Read “The US Nuclear Superpower” to learn more. A risk of an arms race increases when combined with the missile defense plans. The introduction section talks about the western involvement in the Middle East in general, that forms a backdrop to the situation between Palestine and Israel. 45 articles on “Geopolitics” and 10 related issues: The arms trade is a major cause of human rights abuses. Read “Star Wars; Phantom Menace or New Hope?” to learn more. Geopolitics addresses the consequences of this interaction’. Read “Dominance and Change in the Arctic” to learn more. However, numerous issues turned up, including. After the Second World War, with former Imperial Europe weakened, countries around the world had a chance to break for their freedom away from colonial rule. At the start of June 2013, a large number of documents detailing surveillance by intelligence agencies such as the US’s NSA and UK’s GCHQ started to be revealed, based on information supplied by NSA whistle blower, Edward Snowden. Geopolitics that emerged in the age of imperialism was about global competition between great powers who had global interests and global capabilities. Some protests have become revolutions as governments such as those in Tunisia and Egypt have been overthrown. Read “India and Pakistan go Nuclear” to learn more. In other words, he is suggesting that the concept of difference between East and West is a geopolitical difference which is inscribed throughout the texts of Western culture whether travel writings, political texts, paintings, or in academic discussions. The US Army maintain that the school was set up to preserve democracy. This infuriated Palestinians, and led to a series of protests and violence. If this scale of destruction and fighting was in Europe, then people would be calling it World War III with the entire world rushing to report, provide aid, mediate and otherwise try to diffuse the situation. Despite some military defections, the opposition has generally been a disorganized and out-gunned rebel force. The book experienced a new surge of interest after the attacks of September 11 in New York and Washington. Some of its associated ideas have attracted analytical attention, such as the anti-geopolitical eye in feminist geopolitics. Since the early 1990s there has been efforts to review and develop arms-transfer principles and codes of conduct to ensure that arms are not sold to human rights violators. Nothing ‘real’ from an essentialistic point of view. There have been over 9 million refugees and internally displaced people from conflicts in Africa. The US FON program has been criticized from both a realist and liberal viewpoints. The US is also risking abrogation of the Anti Ballistic Missile Treaty by continuing with its Star Wars, or national missile defense system. It is highly politically relevant. This makes it one of the largest businesses in the world. Read “Crisis in East Timor” to learn more. Other issues looked at include various bombing campaigns by coalition forces during the sanctions, and the impact on the environment. 2012 saw the first dip in spending — only slightly —since 1998, in an otherwise rising trend. Fishing, polluting, weapons practice and spying are not ‘innocent’, and submarines and other underwater vehicles are required to navigate on the surface and to show their flags. The power-play of personal or national interests can have a long lasting effect on many, many people. The guided-missile destroyer USS Lassen sailed within 12 nautical miles of reclaimed-land islands in October 2015. Geopolitics – that is nothing ‘real’. If the strait were closed by terrorists or military action, tankers would be required to add considerable distance and expense to deliver their oil, which would immediately raise freight rates worldwide. Geopolitics helps you think about the difference between subjective desire and objective reality. Geopolitics is simply geographical politics meaning the impact of geography on the entire political spectrum. ‘Critical geopolitics’ deconstructs the assumptions about the world behind such decisions. The word geopolitics was originally coined by the Swedish political scientist Rudolf Kjellén about the turn of the 20th century, and its use spread throughout Europe in the period between World Wars I and II (1918–39) and came into worldwide use during the latter. But the way the war on terror has been conducted has led to many voicing concerns about the impact on civil liberties, the cost of the additional security focused changes, the implications of the invasions and wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, and more. Geopolitics is a social construct, a sort of social practice, a discursive formation depending on what theoretical perspective you take on this phenomenon. Roger Stump's Boundaries of faith is a combination of a more traditional study in cultural geography and the new interest in the territorial strategies and geopolitical visions of religions. He held the Chair of Geography at the University of Munich and then at the University of Leipzig and it is here that he developed his ideas about human geography and particularly geopolitics. the analysis of the interaction between, on the one hand, geographical settings and perspectives and, on the other, political processes…. Web. Read “The Middle East conflict—a brief background” to learn more. However, Saudi Arabia is an autocratic regime, not a democracy, with weaknesses in the area of human rights and treatment of women, and it is the country that produced many of the terrorists who participated in the September 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. This section provides a series of articles looking at issues during the period of UN-sanctions that were mostly enforced by the US and UK. Read “Military Expansion Serving Economic Objectives” to learn more. Read “Control of Resources; Supporting Dictators, Rise of Terrorism” to learn more. A strand of this is exploring the geopolitical discourses used by governments and political leaders. While no system is perfect, it seems that democracy is once again under assault. Abstract This paper chronicles the revival of geopolitical writing and analysis in North America and Europe since 1970, after 20 years of decline. Very often, geopolitical competition occurs between great powers and aspiring great powers for control over a territory, natural resources, and other important geographical positions or places (such as ports and harbors, canals, river systems). The secular view was dominant when most governments in the world were either European, offspring from Europe (Americas, Australia) or dominated by a European colonizer (Africa, Asia). For example, the rapidly growing economies of Asia will import increasing amounts of oil from the Middle East in the years ahead. Some of the worst dictators and human rights abusers in the developing world have passed through the school's doors, including people like Roberto D’Aubisson from El Salvador and Manuel Noriega of Panama. Those countries are then demonized to us so we purchase more. Geopolitics, as the struggle over the control of spaces and places, focuses on power, or the ability to achieve particular goals in the face of opposition or alternatives. Most of these sales (something like 75%) are to developing countries. Around the world, countries have condemned Israel's excessive violence. The collection of articles in this section looks at these issues. U. Oslender, in International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, 2009. Wilfrid L. Kohl, in Encyclopedia of Energy, 2004. Geopolitics is traditionally the study of how political power is reinforced or undermined by geographical arrangements (boundaries, coalitions, spatial networks, natural resources, etc.). The 5 permanent members of the UN Security Council (US, Russia, France, United Kingdom and China), together with Germany and Italy account for around 85% of the arms sold between 2004 and 2011. What impacts would such secretive mass surveillance have on democracy? Propaganda comes in various forms, often via manipulative advertising campaigns. Evolution of global population is a key factor for geopolitics, technological development, economics, and environment. The subsections ‘Geopolitics as a discourse in the historical context of biological determinism and geodeterminism at the end of the nineteenth century’, ‘Karl Haushofer and geopolitics in national socialism’, ‘Cold War geopolitics’, ‘The pluralization of geopolitical representation after the end of the Cold War’, and ‘The new spatial organization of power in geopolitical representations after 9/11’ provide an overview of the subject. “Geopolitics.” Global Issues. The West appears to have responded with what looks like a genuine humanitarian intervention attempt. The work of Ratzel and Mackinder are early examples of geopolitical writing with an emphasis on the geographic bases of political strategy. ... before being refined into other types of oil such as the transparent petroleum we’re familiar with. Another perspective boils down to the vision of a new type of world order in which antagonisms between groups are defined by culture rather than ideology. Population characteristics and processes are among the most important elements that enter into geopolitical interpretations. Drawing upon the Western philosophical tradition of ordering the world through conceptual binaries, Said argued that Europe’s representation of the Orient as other, was used to reflect back a positive image of the self. Editor's Note: This is the first in a series of posts by Brookings’s vice president for foreign policy that will highlight Brookings scholars’ new and ongoing work on “the new geopolitics.” Oil interacts with foreign policy in other ways. Violence and Palestinian Uprising in 2000” to learn more. These constructions and others such as some Islamic fundamentalist characterizations of a ‘decadent’ West can be read as geopolitical discourses designed to frame events in particular ways. For Siemens, the decisions governments make around data and others are threatening how its products and services operate. This section looks at the way the US/UK tried to make the case for war based on controversial, often misleading or incorrect messages that the mainstream media often failed to cover adequately, even amidst the immense opposition to the war. Footnote 5 Ó Tuathail's seminal work on “critical geopolitics” in the late 1980s, which builds from this concept of geopower, is now one of the most influential threads of research beyond the discipline. As a result, these nations have been vying for dominance in the Arctic. As well as its role in the analysis of global and regional strategy, geopolitics has entered popular language and political discourse. In 1897 he published his seminal work Politische Geographie and this book would have a profound impact across Europe but especially in Germany in the first decades of the twentieth century. Conventional geopolitics is based around realist political thought. This struggle for freedom and the Cold War had a geopolitical impact on the Middle East. It is a clear proof for how discursive constructions turn into social practice, how representations and imaginations grounded in discourse turn into powerful instruments of political actions. The notion of anti-geopolitics is a very recent one, barely 10 years old. That does not foster good relations. Against this background the next section, ‘The tidal waves of discourse: geopolitics and geopolitical representations in different historical periods’, presents examples from the history and development of geopolitical discourses to show how and based on what historically situated framings geopolitical representations develop and grow their specific impact. Within this backdrop, we see another complex reason for the rise of terrorism and extremism. This section attempts to highlight what some of the consequences of global politics can be. J.P. Sharp, in International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, 2009. It has tended to be concerned with international relations and in particular with the geostrategic concerns of major powers. In the 20th century, market capitalist democracies geared infrastructure, energy, trade, and even social policy to protect and advance that era’s key source of power—manufacturing. Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. Much traditional geopolitical writing tended not just to be written from the perspective of a particular geographical and ideological standpoint but also from an assumption of inevitability. Geopolitics is defined as a discursive practice by which intellectuals of statecraft ‘spatialize’ international politics and represent it as a ‘world’ characterized by particular types of places, peoples and dramas. Although landmine use in the past decade has been significantly reduced, problems such as clearance and rehabilitation remain. The crisis in Libya comes in the context of wider unrest throughout the Middle East and North Africa. 2021. The Arctic region has long been considered international territory. After World War II geopolitics became both an unfashionable term and an unpopular research focus within geography. FON is a principle of customary international law that, apart from the exceptions provided for in international law, ships flying the flag of any sovereign state shall not suffer interference from other states. From a democracy in the 1950s, Iran seems to have moved backwards, from an authoritarian regime (backed by Britain and the US) that overthrew the democratic one, to a religious fundamentalist regime toppling the authoritarian one and taking an anti-US stance. This section explores how the U.S. administration of George Bush Jr. has begun to push a foreign policy that reveals a desire for further expansion to project U.S. power and dominance given its position as the sole superpower in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Empire. Throughout the 1990s, a coalition of numerous non-governmental organizations, the International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL), campaigned successfully to prohibit the use of landmines. 7. According to Cohen (2003, p. 12), geopolitics is defined as ‘the analysis of the interaction between, on the one hand, geographical settings and perspectives and, on the other, political processes…. Major Types of Political Leadership . It is in the former area of geopolitics that historical geographers have been interested and work has concentrated on the causes of war, the role of war within a wider system of international diplomatic and strategic affairs, and the influences of the geographical environment in the conduct of war. Only after one understands how freedom and rights are being suppressed by the managers of imperial states — even as they preach peace, freedom, justice, rights, and majority rule to their citizens to maintain their beliefs in the morality of their society, and thus assure the continued support of the masses for inflicting such violence upon the world — can one write honest history. Another 5,000 were injured including some 1,800 children and 800 women. 07 Apr. It has been argued that the first instance of geopolitics was Orientalism, the imaginative geography of the West versus the rest so eloquently elucidated by Edward Said. To print all information (e.g. Innocent Passage and the Freedom of Navigation. The history of the term ‘geopolitics’ can date back to 1899 when the term was first coined by the Swedish political scientist Rudolf Kjellen. Central Asia, as another example, is a region of increased interest for future oil production, assuming pipeline routes can be constructed to ship the oil to Western markets. The global illicit drugs market is enormous, estimated at some $320 billion. This helped to create the 1997 Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction, also known as the Ottawa Treaty. Read “Conflicts in Africa” to learn more. These texts ‘preceded’ experience, so empirical evidence was included but fitted into the categories that were already constructed. From the beginning of the last century, when the term ‘geopolitics’ itself was first used by the Swedish political scientist Rudolf Kjellén, the range of explanations widely extends.

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